D. RonThweatt
University of Alabama
Much of the research which has been conducted to date regarding stress and police
officers has focused on identifying the presence of stress, associating stress with
specific stressors, and comparing levels of stress between police officers and members
of other professions. This project focused on the influence of one potential mediator of
stress - religious activity. Data were collected from a population of law enforcement
officers from a medium sized city and from a comparison group of fire fighters from the
same city. The data indicate that religiosity has two factors (1) traditional beliefs and
activities and (2) religious satisfaction and perceived influence of religion on subject's
everyday lives. The second factor was found to be negatively related to stress for police
officers. As religious satisfaction and perceived influence increase, stress increases.
INTRODUCTION
Stress among criminal justice employees has been a focus of research in recent
years. As this field of interest continues to expand, additional factors are emerging as
related to stress and stress reduction. The study reported here focuses on religious
participation and religious belief as potential mediators of stress for police officers.
Data were collected from a group of firefighters to provide a comparison group.
The twentieth century has been referred to as the "Age of Anxiety" or the
"Century of Stress." The fast pace of society has led to an increase in health problems
which many health professionals believe to be the result of tension and anxiety
(Charlesworth & Nathan, 1982). Barton (1982) adds that stress sometimes weighs
heaviest on those persons whose job it is to assist other people
Stress research began over 50 years ago with the Canadian
physiologist-physician. Dr. Hans Selye (Hageman, 1982). Selye (1956) defined stress
as the rate of wear and tear in the body. In his later work, Selye (1974) expanded the
definition of stress to include the "nonspecific response of the body to any demand
made upon it to adapt whether that demand produces pleasure or pain" (p. 14). Other
researchers have used Selye's work to develop similar definitions of stress (Ghennan,
1981; Schafer, 1983; Alien. 1983). Patel (1984) maintains that stress is a difficult
concept to define because the definition depends upon how an individual perceives a
particular situation, how that particular person evaluates the information perceived, and
how his/her body reacts to the situation. In his recent work, Violanti (1992) has focused
on the response to personal distress.
A substantial body of research literature has supported the assumption that
police work is one of the most stressful occupations (Malloy & Mays. 1984; Sigler &
Wilson, 1988). Recent studies have demonstrated that stress among police officers is
an international phenomenon. Recently reported studies have examined stress in
Australia (Evans, Coman, Stanley, Burrows, & Graham, 1993), Canada (Burke, 1993),
England (Alexander, 1993- Brown & Campbell, 1990, Cooper, Kirkcaldy, & Brown,
1994, Kirkcaldy, 1993), England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales (Brown,
Cooper, Kirkcaldy, 1996), Germany (Kirkcaldy & Furnham, 1995; Kirkcaldy Bruce
Furnham, & Cooper, 1994) and India (Bhasker, 1990). In addition, cross-cultural
studies (Kirkcaldy, Bruce Brown, & Cooper 1994; Kirkcaldy. Cooper, Furnham, &
Brown, 1993) have been reported.
Extensive research has been conducted in this field primarily because the nature
of police work itself is stressful (Symonds, 1970). Police officers are required to make
split-second decisions, some of which may determine the life or death of particular
individuals. Moreover, police officers are expected to be problem solvers who have
perfect solutions for everyone's problems (Barton, 1982).
Police Stressors
Identified causes of stress in police officers include: lenient court sentences,
administrative policies, equipment, community relations, and shift work (Kroes,
Margolis, & Hurrell, 1974), police organizational stressors (Brown, & Campbell, 1990;
Hart, Wearing, & Headey, 1995; Kirkcaldy, Cooper, & Ruffalo, 1995; Violanti, & Aron,
1993, 1994), organizational practices and characteristics, criminal justice system
practices and characteristics, public practices and characteristics, police work itself
(Territo & Vetter, 1981), and sets of internal, external, task-related, and individual
stressors (Terry, 1981).
Sewell (1983, 1994) developed a critical life events scale to identify stressors for
police officers. The scale included 144 events which police officers felt were stressful.
The violent death of a partner in the line of duty was ranked as the most stressful
event. Completing a routine report ranked as the least stressful event in an officer's job.
Dantzker (1986), however, pointed out that the vast majority of literature concerning
police stress reveals that public opinion, the criminal justice system itself, and incidents
involving brutality, pain, or death are most likely the main stressors with which police
officers must leam to cope. If the officer does not leam how to cope with the stress
caused by these stressors, serious complications can result.
Stress Management
Stress is an integral part of life. For many individuals stress becomes a
dominating factor in their lives, leading to stress-related disorders. These disorders can
be reduced if a person understands how stress occurs, how the effects can damage
him or her physically and emotionally, and how she or he can cope with stress. The
awareness of stress and its control is the primary focus of stress management (Apgar &
Callahan, 1982; Charlesworth & Nathan, 1982; Ghennan, 1981). The responsibility for
and method chosen for coping is a matter of individual choice (Ghennan, 1981; Reese,
1989; Schafer, 1983).
Ghennan (1981) asserted that one of the key principles in managing stress and
living a low-stress lifestyle is balance. He encourages people to arrange their lives in
such a way that no one area is disproportionate to the other. Kirkcaldy (1993) found
that British police officers who demonstrated lower levels of stress coped with stress
through managed time and home support. Australian police officers use
problem-focused direct action coping strategies supplemented by acceptance of
responsibility for their actions and social support to address stress (Evans, Coman,
Stanley. Burrows, & Graham, 1993).
Recent research has focused on personality type including type A and type B
behavior as well as inner and outer locus of control (Cooper, Kirkcaldy, & Brown, 1994;
Kirkcaldy, Fumham, & Cooper, 1994; Kirkcaldy, Shepard, & Cooper, 1993; Kirkcaldy,
Cooper, Furnham,& Brown, 1993). While consistent results were not found for type A
and type B behavior, subjects with an inner locus of control tend to demonstrate lower
levels of stress.
Webb and Smith (1980) have stated that stress prevention and alleviation
strategies for police officers are either proactive or reactive. The proactive strategies,
which include training programs, better selection criteria, and various administrative
methods are designed to prevent the development of stress. Reactive strategies, which
include counseling or rehabilitation programs, attempt to alleviate the damage(s) of
stress.
One method for coping with excessive stress is peer counseling. Peer counseling
involves one officer talking with a fellow officer about the problems which s/he may be
experiencing as a result of police work. Peer counseling, which was initiated in the
1950s by the Boston Police Department as a stress reduction program focusing mainly
on alcohol-related problems, was found to be beneficial in several ways. First, officers
can rely upon each other for understanding and support (Klein, 1989). Second, for
those police departments not able to provide professional in-house counselors, a peer
counseling program is a less expensive alternative that can provide similar, if not better
services (DePue, 1979). Third, for various reasons many "stressed-out" officers may
not seek outside professional counseling (Klein, 1989).
Another stress management technique that is found to be helpful is a proper
diet. For convenience and time, police officers usually eat "junk food" (Office of General
Training, 1987). This diet, however, is not nutritional, thus weakening the body and
causing it to function as if in a state of high stress (Phillips & Hatch, 1978). Police
officers are encouraged to decrease their consumption of processed foods high in
sugar and fat and to increase consumption of fresh fruits, vegetables, and whole grains
(Office of General Training, 1987).
In addition to a proper diet, physical fitness can serve as a means of coping with
stress (Kilkcaldy, Cooper, Shepard, & Brown, 1994). Hageman, Kennedy, and Price
(1985) noted that there are three different kinds of physical fitness exercises for the
police officer to choose: endurance, flexibility, and muscular strength. Each type
of exercise, when used in a balanced fitness program, provides the police officer with
an effective way of reducing stress.
A third technique used in stress management is mental
exercises. These exercises include transcendental meditation, Zen, yoga,
self-hypnosis, and bio-feedback (Office of General Training, 1987).
A final tool that can reduce stress is religion (Beehr, Johnson, & Nieva, 1995).
Charlesworth and Nathan (1982) noted that "religious fellowship, spiritual principles,
and faith in something greater than man can be major sources of strength for daily
living and times of crisis" (p. 369).
Determining Religiosity
Durkheim (1912) asserted that all known religions classified things into two
opposing groups, which he referred to as the profane and the sacred. The profane
refers to the aspects in life which are everyday and commonplace; the sacred relates to
the things or events which are not a normal part of life but which are
mysterious, extraordinary, or awe-inspiring.
Glock and Stark (1965) noted that Durkheim's original attempts to characterize
religion have been refined by several writers including Parsons, Yinger, Nottingham,
Williams, and Tillich. Glock and Stark (1965) borrowed ideas from each writer to
synthesize a general definition of religion. They held that "religion, or what societies
hold to be sacred, comprises an institutionalized system of symbols, beliefs, values,
and practices focused on questions of ultimate meaning" (p. 4).
Galloway (1929) viewed religion as having two sides-an inner side and an outer
side. The inner side of religion involves the feelings and beliefs within one's spirit; the
outer side is the expression of what is on the inside through appropriate acts.
Peck (1978) has stated that we often define religion too narrowly. Many people
assume that religion must include a belief in God or involve a particular ritualistic
custom or membership in a worshipping group. Peck (1978) is quick to point out that
everyone has a religion since each person has a set of ideas and beliefs regarding
the universe and how she or he fits into that universe.
One of the most difficult tasks in designing methodologies for studying religion is
determining what is "religious." Glock and Stark (1965) note that each individual has
his or her own ideas of what it means to be religious. Although refagious iias various
interpretations, most people assume that religion relates to a religious organization or
denomination and that individual religiosity, or the degree of being or appearing
religious, is measured by the individual's association with or attachment to a church,
temple, synagogue, or mosque (Demerath & Hammond, 1969).
One of the primary problems in measuring individual religiosity is that
researchers tend to rely on a single measure or indicator to determine such a complex
phenomenon (Demerath & Hammond, 1969). In many studies religiosity is based on the
doing aspect of an individual's religion, primarily worship service attendance. The
majority of the religious studies are conducted in this manner because it is easier to
measure religiosity based on involvement in formal practices than it is to discover
religious aspects in an individual who does not participate in institutionalized religion. If
religiosity is measured only on the doing aspects of religion, then the study is biased
toward that one measure. In order to determine religiosity effectively, several
counterbalancing measures must be utilized to eliminate any potential biases and/or
any unilateral measurements (Demerath & Hammond, 1969).
Researchers tend to focus upon one or two manifestations of religiosity, such as
religious beliefs or religious practices, rather than on establishing different ways in
which an individual can be religious (Glock & Stark, 1965). Glock and Stark (1965)
have suggested that religiosity can be measured in five dimensions which include the
experiential (feelings and emotions), the ritualistic (activities such as worship and
prayer), the ideological (holding to certain beliefs), the intellectual (informed and
knowledgeable about basic tenets of faith), and the consequential (encompasses
secular effects of religious practice, belief, experience, and intellect). They concluded
that in order to study religion and truly assess religiosity, the researcher should
utilize many dimensions of religiosity to achieve a multidimensional measure.
Religion and Stress
Nottingham (1954) noted that stress is part of the nature of life. He suggested
that emotional feelings usually remain after the stress has been alleviated and there
must be a way in which a person can cope with an entire situation, including one's
emotions. He asserted that religion is one of the most important tools that a person can
use to adjust or to cope with a stressful situation. Byme and Price (1979) agreed in
suggesting that religion helps carry the "peak load" of human emotional need.
Woolfolk and Lehrer (1984) noted that religious practices have been used to
reduce stress. Many of the stress reduction methods which have been used are
offshoots of particular religious practices. Several of the reduction methods practiced
today originated in Hindu religion and philosophy as well as in the religious practices of
Jews and Christians. Benson (1975) conducted research on ancient Christian
meditative practices and found that they were effective in producing physiological
changes which were favorable in lowering stress.
Woolfolk and Lehrer (1984) asserted that not only can individual religious
practices reduce stress but also that the practices of religious groups can serve to
neutralize social isolation by teaching morality and by encouraging networks of
friendship and mutual help. Although religious groups may provide the foundation for
high moral and ethical values, the beliefs expressed by some denominations may
create stress as a result of high levels of guilt and discomfort created when members
do not live up to the standards of those particular denominations. In Catholicism, for
example, the concept of sin may create stress in an individual, while at the same time
the confession and absolution of the individual's sin can help alleviate the stress.
Jewish values place importance on education and professional success; these values
can create stress on the Jewish person who is not inclined to or who cannot adhere to
that particular belief or ideal (Byme & Price, 1979).
Religion and Health
Stress is measured in terms of the prevalence of or increase in illness or poor
health. A number of empirical studies have been conducted which examine the
relationship between religion and health. Comstock and Partridge (1972) conducted a
study regarding church attendance and health. They discovered that death rates from
emphysema, cirrhosis, and suicide were much higher among infrequent church
attenders. Similarly, Hannay (1980) discovered a significant relationship between the
prevalence of health disorders and religious allegiance. The data revealed that those
who were active in attending or taking part in a religious service had fewer health
symptoms than those who were merely passive in religious allegiance. Levin and
Vanderpool (1987) questioned these findings and suggested that researcb^rs neted to
consider and clarity other ways of measuring religious commitment instead of
depending upon attendance at various religious services.
Religion and Law Enforcement
Many individuals, including police officers, may question whether or not these
two social organizations can or should be considered together. Religion, in one form
or another, has had a presence in law enforcement for some time. One of the first
attempts to help the officer experiencing stress was the creation of the position of
police chaplain. For the most part, the chaplain was a priest, minister, or rabbi from
within the community who offered his or her guidance and assistance to police officers
and their families. Not only did the chaplain provide spiritual advice and support to
the officers, but she or he also aided the police in some of their duties, which included
delivering death messages (DePue. 1979).
It is possible that, for the police officer, religious practices can provide a means
of reducing stress. Participation in religious practices such as church attendance,
prayer, religious study, and confession, can help alleviate illness, anxiety, and
depression. Furthermore, religious belief and participation in activities within a
religious institution can be a powerful coping mechanism because it offers prospective
hope, inner strength, spiritual guidance, and yields stronger family ties (Office of
General Training, 1987). Moreover, several ministries, such as "Cops for Christ" (Office
of General Training, 1987) and "Law Enforcement Ministries" (Cumings, 1988) have
been implemented to help officers and their families cope with stress.
Managing Stress
Stress is a factor in everyday living and in nearly all occupations. The police
officer, however, encounters daily situations which cause stress and problems on and
off the job. There are several stress management programs which some police
departments have implemented. In addition to departmental programs, some police
officers have their own ways of coping with the stress produced by police work.
Unfortunately, there are no panaceas in managing stress in police officers, or in
any other occupation. Since no two people are alike, a particular coping strategy may
prove successful for one person while failing with another. Some police officers may
find their coping strategy in other officers, family members, friends, or religion. The
question which this study examines is does the practice of religion reduce stress in
police officers?
METHODOLOGY
Approach of Study
Data were collected using a questionnaire which was distributed in the
workplace to police officers and firefighters in the city of Tuscaloosa, Alabama.
Firefighters were used as a comparison group for several reasons. First, firefighters,
like the police, are a quasi-military, uniformed organization. Second, firefighters
undergo stringent physical and mental screening before being hired. Third, firefighters
work in the same city as police officers and are employed by the same employer—the
city. Fourth, firefighters and police officers are exposed to sudden demands from the
public. Fifth and finally, these two groups are public servants who must not only
respond immediately to emergency situations, but must do so in a professional manner
(Pendleton, Stotland, Spiers, & Kirsch, 1989). While firefighters are not identical to
police officers, they are one of the most comparable groups available for study.
Variables
The dependent variable for this study is stress. For this study, stress is defined
as a physiological pathology such as headaches or more serious illnesses such as
cancer produced when demands exceed the capability of a person to respond
effectively to the demands. Stress is measured with two scales. One measures work
stress (stress-related disorders experienced while at work); the other measures life
stress (stress-related disorders experienced while not at work). These scales were
modifications of the Holmes and Rahe Social Readjustment Scale (1967).
Independent variables related to stress include life stressors, job satisfaction,
and work stressors. Life stressors are events that occur in life which cause stress. Job
satisfaction is the extent to which a person has a positive orientation to his/her job.
Work stressors are events which produce stress while at work. These scales were
adapted from scales developed by Sigler and Wilson (1988).
Religiosity is a mediating variable and is defined as the participation or
involvement in certain religious or non-religious functions (religious, such as a worship
service, and non-religious, such as a social outing with a church group) and beliefs
held regarding the actor's religion. Religiosity is measured with four scales. Religious
beliefs are the ideas or values that a person holds regarding his/her religion. Religious
activities are participation in various religious and non-religious acts. Religious
satisfaction is the enjoyment of, devotion to, and comfort from participation in various
religious activities. Religion and life is the degree to which a person's religion
influences his/her day-to-day living. The religious questions and scale development
were adopted from research conducted by King and Hunt (1975).
Hypothesis
This study focuses on stress in police officers and the impact that religious
practices can have in reducing that stress. The main hypothesis for this study states
that as religiosity increases, stress decreases in police officers.
Population and Sample
This project is a population study, so no sampling procedure was utilized. The
population for this study included all police officers (n=175) and firefighters (n=174) in
the city of Tuscaloosa, Alabama. Complete schedules were obtained from 84 police
officers and 120 firefighters.
Instrument
The instrument was a 12-page questionnaire consisting of 180 questions that
utilized various types of scaling. The stress scales used in this instrument were
adopted from scales from research undertaken by Sigler and Wilson (1988) comparing
police and teacher stress. The life stress scale used was a modification of the Holmes
and Rahe Social Readjustment Scale (1967). Many of the items for the various
religious scales were adopted from an instrument developed by King and Hunt (1975).
The instrument was pre-tested by administration to a non-random sample often
associates of the researchers which included police officers.
Collection of Data
The instrument was administered in the workplaces of each group. Data were
collected from the firefighters for three consecutive days. At each fire station the project
was explained and the surveys distributed. Since the majority of the firefighters were
willing to respond immediately, the researcher remained at each station until those
participating completed the questionnaire. This provided for efficient collection of the
data and a high response rate.
Prior to the gathering of data from the police department, the chief issued a
memorandum to all division commanders explaining the research project and
encouraging participation from all officers. The researcher was accompanied by a
captain to the roll calls. During roll call or muster, the researcher was given a brief
period to explain the project and pass out the questionnaires. This procedure was
repeated for the roll calls at all three shifts (8:00 a.m., 4:00 p.m., midnight), with the
exception of the traffic division which met at 6:45 a.m.
The researcher went to the roll calls of each division for two consecutive days in
an effort to contact those who were sick or off duty. Officers were instructed to return
their surveys to their division supervisors, who in turn would give them to the captain
responsible for collection. A time span of approximately a week and a half was
allowed to give officers sufficient time to complete the survey.
Analysis of Data
Nine scales were constructed. The scales measuring life stressors and religious
beliefs required the subject to respond "yes" or "no". The subject's score on each scale
was the number of "yes" responses. Job satisfaction, religious satisfaction, and religion
and life were Likert type scales. The remaining scales, including work stressors, work
stress, and life stress, measured responses on a five-point, 0 to 4 scale. The religious
activities scale measured responses on a six-point, 0 to 5 scale. In both the five-point
and six-point scales the subject's score was the computed sum of his or her responses.
Item analysis was conducted for each Likert type scale. With the exception of
two scales, job satisfaction and religion and life, every item within the scales
discriminated between the upper and lower quartiles. In the job satisfaction scale, two
items failed to discriminate, producing a 22-item scale. Three items failed to
discriminate in the religion and life scale, producing a 26-item scale.
The data were analyzed to determine any differences between the stress levels
of police officers and firefighters and the impact which religious practices have on
reducing stress in these two groups.
FINDINGS
Questionnaires were delivered to 161 of the 175 sworn police officers in the
Tuscaloosa Police Department. The 14 officers who were not contacted were either
sick or off duty. Eighty-four properly completed instruments were returned for analysis.
Questionnaires were delivered to 154 of the 174 firefighters contacted; 128 firefighters
responded producing 212 subjects from a study population of 315.
There were more female police officers than female firefighters (p for chi square
= .001) and more black police officers than black firefighters (p for chi square = .01).
Eighty-seven percent of the police officers and ninety-eight percent of the firefighters
were men. Seventy-seven percent of the police officers and ninety-one percent of the
firefighters were Caucasian. Police officers also tended to be better educated than fire
fighters (p for chi square =.01). The majority of police officers (61%) reported having
obtained some college training and/or a college degree; 48% of the firefighters
reported the equivalent. Forty percent of the police officers and fifty-two percent of the
firefighters reported having a high school diploma. Police officers were less likely to be
married than firefighters (p for chi square = .002). The majority of police officers (68%)
and firefighters (85%) were married. Police had higher rates of divorce (23%) when
compared with firefighters (6%). More police officers than firefighters were line officers
(p for chi square = .003). The majority of police officers (69%) and firefighters (43%)
responding were line personnel. In examining rank in police officers, 17% were
sergeants, 8% were lieutenants, and 6% were captain and above. Firefighters had
higher percentages of ranking officers with 29% sergeants, 20% lieutenants, and 8%
captain and above. Differences for age and religious denomination were not significant
by department. All demographic measures approximated departmental figures.
Constructed Scales
Nine scales were constructed from the questionnaire. Two scales measured
stress (work stress and life stress), three scales measured stressors (work stressors,
life stressors, and job satisfaction), and four scales measured religiosity (religious
beliefs, religious activities, religious satisfaction, and religion and life). With the
exception of one scale, religious beliefs, the scales were stabilized and were found to
approximate a normal curve with kurtosis and skewness falling between +2. The
religious beliefs scale failed to approximate a normal curve because it was heavily
skewed to the high end of the scale; that is, the majority of the subjects responded
positively to all of the belief questions.
The religious variables appear to be highly interrelated (see Table 1) with all
correlations highly significant. There is some support for the contention that religiosity
is not a unidimensional concept in that two factors appear to emerge from the four
scales measured in this study. The extent to which religion is perceived as influencing
life is positively related to religious satisfaction, and both of these are negatively
related to religious activity. Although the religious belief scale is a weak measure, it can
be noted that it is positively related to religious activity and negatively related to
religious satisfaction and the extent to which religion is perceived as influencing life.
The two factors, then, would be (1) religious activity and religious beliefs and (2)
religious satisfaction and the extent to which religion is perceived as influencing life.
This pattern remains when the data is partitioned by occupation (see tables 2 and 3)
with all relationships significant except for the relationship between religious
satisfaction and religious beliefs for police officers (Rho = -. 1628, p = .072).
The stress and stressor variables are also highly interrelated, with the
exception of life stressors (see Table 1). The only significant relationship for life
stressors is with work stressors. While this pattern holds for firefighters (see Table 2), it
does not hold for police officers. For the police, work stress is only significantly related
to work stressors while life stress is significantly related to both life stressors and work
stressors (see Table 3).
Significant relationships were found between police officers and firefighters for
life stressors (p for t < .002) and work stressors (p for t < .032). Police officers
experienced more life stressors (mean = 3.9048) than firefighters (mean = 2.6250).
Firefighters reported more work stressors (firefighters = 27.2109; police officers
=24.6747). Differences between work stress and life stress were not significant. The
literature suggests that police officers experience more stress and stressors than
firefighters (Pendleton, Stotland, Spiers, & Kirsch, 1988; Anson & Bloom, 1988). It is
possible that in this setting firefighters are presently experiencing higher than normal
exposure to stressors. During debriefing sessions in the fire stations, firefighters
indicated that recent controversy regarding pay was becoming increasingly stressful for
them. Several years ago firefighter pay was linked with police officer pay, firefighters
received the same pay as police officers. Approximately six months prior to collection of
data this equivalence was abandoned; police officers received a pay raise which was
not offered to firefighters. Efforts by the firefighters to recover their prior equivalence in
pay with police officers had been non-productive. It has also been noted that as the
quality of the administration of police departments increases stress decreases (Sigler,
Wilson, & Alien, 1991). It is noted that police professionals in the state perceive the
Tuscaloosa Police Department as exceptionally well managed.
It was hypothesized that religiosity would act as a mediating variable and reduce
stress. This hypothesis was not supported by these data. Religious activity and
religious beliefs were negatively related to job satisfaction; religious satisfaction and
the extent to which religion was seen as influencing life were positively related to job
satisfaction. Religious satisfaction was positively related to all of the stress and
stressor scales. The extent to which religion was seen as influencing life was also
positively related to work stressors and life stress (See Table 1). For firefighters and for
police officers the relationships among the religiosity scales and job satisfaction
remained, but the relationships with work stressors and work stress disappeared for
firefighters (see Tables 2 and 3). For police officers the two factors identified in the
religiosity scales re-merged. With the exception of job satisfaction, the relationships
among factor one (religious activity and religious beliefs) and the stress and stressor
variables were not significant. The relationships among factor two (religious satisfaction
and the extent to which religion was seen as influencing life) were significant or
marginally significant (<07), but negative (see Table 3).
SUMMARY
This research project focused on the intersection of two lines of complex
research-the dynamics of religiosity and the dynamics of stress. The settings chosen,
police work and firefighting, are equally complex, and, as is the case with religiosity and
stress, are characterized by a lack of clarity in the models presently being applied. This
study finds some support for the assertions of scholars who study these phenomena
that their respective fields are complex emerging fields of study.
Police officers for this study did not demonstrate higher levels of stress than fire
fighters, a finding which is contradictory to those of similar contemporary research
projects. It is noted that these firefighters are exposed to a higher level of stressors
than normal and that the police department is perceived as being better managed than
the average police department, factors which could be related to level of stress.
These findings indicate that religiosity is not a unidimensional concept. Two
potential factors were identified. One focused on acceptance of traditional beliefs and
participation in traditional or common religious activities; the second focused on
religious satisfaction and the extent to which the subjects perceived religion as
influencing their everyday life. These two factors are negatively correlated, with activity
and belief declining as satisfaction and application to life increases.
For police officers, some aspects of religious activity might increase stress. The
more satisfied the police officer is with his or her religion and the more that he or she
perceives religion as an influence in her or his everyday activities, the more stress that
he or she experiences. It is possible that religious belief is a stressor when the beliefs
are strongly held. Police officers confront sinful behavior in the performance of their
duties and quickly learn that they have to accept levels of behavior from others which
are contrary to the teachings of their religion. Police officers are not able to exercise
behaviors consistent with strong religious values. Good investigation and crisis
intervention can require the use of deception. When behaviors tolerated or performed
cannot be reconciled with religious beliefs, stress will increase. The more
strongly the religious beliefs are held, the more likely the conflict between behavior and
values will be to cause stress.
It is clear from these data that considerable additional research is required
before the interplay between religiosity and stress among police officers can be
adequately assessed. In particular, the relationship and dynamics among the various
dimensions of religiosity must be explored and adequately charted. While considerable
progress has been made in recent years in understanding the relationships and
dynamics among the various stress and stressor variables, the understanding of this
phenomenon is still rudimentary.
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